Table 4 Influence of agricultural extension on smallholder livelihood diversification strategies
Livelihood Capital | Variables influenced | Direction of influence | Outcome of influence | Diversification strategies affected | Extension Approach(es) | Quantitative impact |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human capital | Knowledge, Attitude and Perception | Positive | Proper use of farming resources | Both farm and nonfarm activities | Farmer Field and Business Schools and Digital extension systems | A 30% reduction of crop failure and improved crop yield at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05 [20, 26] |
Farmers satisfaction | Positive/Negative | Motivation for participation | Off-farm activities | Digital-driven extension services like e-voucher systems | A 22.8% reduction in coffee production [27] | |
Entrepreneurial skills | Positive | Comprehensive understanding of marketing trends | Both farm and nonfarm activities | Farmer Producer Organizations, Digital extension systems | ||
Financial capital | Access to financial services such as saving programs | Positive | Timely and regular purchase of farm inputs and | Both farm and nonfarm activities | Microcredit integration in ICT-based extension services | 52.7% of farmers engaged in nonfarm sources of income [29] |
Social capital | Rural migration | Positive/Negative | Reduce pressure on land resources | Off-farm activities | Rural‒urban linkages | Urban unemployment at 29% [30] |
Social Equality | Positive/Negative | Women inclusion in economic activities | Both farm and off-farm activities | Targeted extension massaging via ICT- based extension services | 24.5% of women participated in livelihood diversification strategies [31] | |
Social Networking | Positive/Negative | Collective decision- making | Both farm and off-farm activities | Farmer Producer Organizations, | Enhanced adaptive capacity of farmers [32] | |
Natural capital | Land access and ownership | Positive | Expands income-generation activities | Both farm and off-farm activities | Conservation Agriculture | 1.5 to 12.3% increase in diversification [33] |
Land size | Positive/Negative | Crop diversification | Both farm and off-farm activities | Climate-smart Agriculture | Increased adoption rate by 15.8% [25] | |
Physical capital | Access to infrastructure, market, digital technologies, farm inputs | Positive | Reduces vulnerability to market shocks and emerging natural disasters | Both farm and off-farm activities | Digital-driven extension services like Esoko systems, Farmer Field and Business Schools | A 20% increase in food production and marketing during climatic shocks [25, 34] |